The Magic Hair
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Chapter 1 / Fun Facts
Lightning
Why do you see lightning before you hear thunder? It’s because light travels faster than sound. Lightning super heats the air around it. It’s five times hotter than the surface of the sun. All this hot air creates a pressure wave that causes a sonic boom. That boom is what we call thunder.
The rolling or rumbling sound you hear is the shock wave moving along the lightning’s path. Thunder can be heard from as far away as 12 miles [19 km].
If you can hear thunder, you could be close enough to be hit by lightning. It can strike up to 10 miles [16 km] away from the center of the storm. That means there could be blue skies overhead, and yet you’re still in danger. That’s where the expression, “a bolt from the blue” came from. It means something unexpected.
Lightning strikes somewhere in the world about 100 times every second. The bolt itself is pretty thin, just about ½ to 1½ inches [1-4 cm].
Medieval Europeans believed that thunder and lightning were caused by evil spirits. During thunderstorms, they rang the church bells trying to chase away the danger. Unfortunately, all that really did was endanger the bell wringers since the bell towers were often the highest point in town and therefore a lightning magnet.
Raining Cats and Dogs
The real expression, of course, is “raining cats and dogs.” It means raining very heavily. There are several theories about how the phrase began.
In 1652, Richard Brome wrote in one of his plays, “It shall raine dogs and polecats.” A polecat, by the way, is a type of weasel.
In 1710, Jonathan Swift—yes, the same guy who wrote Gulliver’s Travels—described a scene where heavy rains washed all kinds of filth down the street, including dead animals. In 1738, he used the actual phrase, “rain cats and dogs.”
This is why some people believe the origin of the saying lies in the highly unsanitary conditions that existed before modern garbage collection.
Another theory that’s not quite as gross, comes from North European mythology. Cats were associated with rain and dogs with wind. So a heavy downpour with howling winds could be said to be “raining cats and dogs.”
​Mules
“Peetie and Jacko,” Dorn said, meaning his plow mules. “Those beasts can slog through anything.”
Mules are the offspring of a donkey and a horse. They have smaller and tougher hooves than horses. Their hooves are also more straight up and down compared with a horse’s somewhat backward-slanted hoof.
This difference allows mules to make better contact with the ground. And that helps them be more sure footed.
​Hinges
We take hinges for granted today, but these humble mechanisms were a significant leap forward for civilization.
The earliest forms date back to 1600 BC. These were complicated apparatus that were used mostly for public and sacred buildings.*
Centuries later, the Romans improved the device so that it could be used on more common items—household doors, cabinets, even armor. Hinges were so important to the Romans that they had a goddess of hinges—Cardea.
By medieval times when metal work was becoming more advanced, wrought iron hinges were available to more common people.
* I did, however, see a jewelry box that had tiny metal hinges at an exhibition of artifacts from King Tut’s tomb. They looked exactly like the ones created today.
Chapter 2 / Fun Facts
Knight History
In the beginning of the Middle Ages, knights were just young men willing to fight to protect a nobleman or lord. In return, the “knights” were given a share of the plunder from their battles and sometimes their own estate or land.
Over time, the knights became wealthier, more powerful and better trained. Their role expanded to protect the king or queen, as well as the country. Their code of conduct also included being a “champion of the people.”
Common folk needed the knights’ protection because enemies could wipe out entire towns simply by setting fire to their homes and the food they had stored for the winter. Remember, this is before you could just pop into the nearest grocery to get more.
This guardian role is why folks of lesser rank held knights in such high esteem.
​Scars
Scars can form when a cut is deep enough to go through the first two layers of skin—the epidermis and dermis. The dermis layer is where hair follicles live. An injury at this second level doesn’t allow hair to regenerate under the scar, so there’s no hair growth.
Armor History
“Go get my armor,” Elliot told Pia. “And hurry up.”
When you think about armor, what probably comes to mind is the full metal suit of medieval knights. This is the type of armor that Pia is retrieving for Elliot.
But body armor was around well before the Middle Ages. And it continues to evolve to this day. Bullet-proof vests are a good example of “armor” that has been developed to protect against today’s sophisticated weaponry.
Ancient civilizations minimized their battle wounds with the things they had easily at hand. So throughout history and the world, there was armor made out of animal skins, bones, wood, leather, linen and silk. The ancient Chinese even figured out how to use paper to stop arrows.
Metal armor that looks like fish scales has been found in Egyptian pharaohs’ tombs. In Greece and China, archeologists have discovered plate armor, which is similar to the knight-in-shining-armor style, that dates all the way back to the Bronze Age.
The complete suit of medieval armor we’re more familiar with was in use during the early 15th century. This was around the same time that gunpowder weapons were being perfected. These weapons made the suit of armor useless because bullets, cannonballs and other projectiles could easily penetrate the metal.
Smoke Signals
Smoke signals are an ancient form of communication. They were used to send messages over long distances. With a few puffs of smoke, the signaler could transmit news, warn others of danger or gather people to a particular place.
The ancient Chinese alerted each other to enemy attacks by signaling from tower to tower along the Great Wall. The Greek poet Homer wrote about using fire signals in the Iliad, which dates back to 1200 BC. Native Americans were also famous for using smoke signals, with each tribe having its own signaling system that only they could understand.
Smoke signals are still used today at the Vatican whenever a new Pope is selected.
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Armor Pieces
The breastplate was the most important piece of a knight’s armor because it protected his vital organs. It could cover just the front, or be combined with a backplate to safeguard the entire torso.
Other pieces of armor included:
• Helm—a helmet
• Gorget—like a metal turtleneck
• Gauntlets—metal gloves
• Greaves—shin guards
Unlike the knights you see in comedies that can barely move while wearing all of this metal, a real suit of armor weighed about 60 pounds [27 kilograms]. Today’s soldiers carry at least that much weight with all of their equipment, and certain specialists carry double that amount of weight.
Chapter 3 / Fun Facts
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Medieval Mattresses
In medieval times, the common folks slept on mattresses stuffed with straw.
The rich, however, enjoyed luxuriously soft featherbeds. These were sometimes set on top of a straw or woolen-stuffed mattress. Heavy curtains surrounded the bed to keep out the cold. The bed and bedding were considered so valuable that they were often passed down in the owner’s will.
Street Painting
Chalk drawing, or street painting as it’s also called, began in Italy during the 16th century. The artists were called madonnari because they generally drew simple images of the Madonna (Jesus’ mother, not the pop star).
They created their artwork in public squares in front of the local church. Townspeople left coins or food in appreciation of their work.
Today, there are street painting festivals all over the world. You can also view this beautiful art form on websites created by some of the larger festivals and some popular “nuovi madonnari,” which means new street painters.
Coat of Arms
A coat of arms—or arms—is an official symbol of a person or group of people. Medieval knights displayed arms on their battle shields so they would know friend from foe. Arms were also used for the seals affixed to official documents and envelopes that contained private information.
A coat of arms design is almost always a shield shape that has distinctive motifs. Motifs are decorative images that are repeated to form a pattern.
More elaborate designs may contain a helm or crest at the top of the shield. These often have supporters, which are generally animals, on the side. A motto might also be emblazoned somewhere on the shield.
Medieval Tools
Tem Waffa trudged into the workshop and returned with an entire armful of woodworking tools.
Woodworkers in the Middle Ages had to rely on the local smith instead of a hardware store to get their tools. They also had to depend on pure muscle instead of electricity or battery power.
But many of the implements they used were similar to today’s versions. Hammers and mallets, which are hammers with a wooden head, looked the same then as now. We would also be familiar with their saws, axes and hatchets.
Chisels and planes from the Middle Ages would be familiar to today’s woodworkers. A chisel is an extremely sharp blade that’s attached to a handle. It’s used to cut out small sections of wood. Gino kept his chisel in a leather bag to protect the blade’s razor edge from dulling in the weather. A plane also has a very sharp blade that’s housed in a wooden block. It’s used to shave off wood in thin strips.
One tool that may be less well known today is the auger, which was used to drill holes. Augers are a metal bit, which looks like a screw, attached to a handle. Turning the handle drives the bit into the wood, carving out a hole.
Although iron nails were available in the Middle Ages, they were very expensive. Wooden pegs were most often used to hold together medieval furniture.
Chapter 4 / Fun Facts
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Deep Breathing
Taking in a deep breath through your nose and letting it out slowly through your mouth can actually relieve stress and help you calm down. Breathing slowly and thinking about each breath activates a part of your brain that sends out special hormones to block some of the stress-producing hormones. It also signals your body to relax.
If you’re in a panic, repeat this deep breathing several times or for a few minutes if needed. Once you’ve calmed down a little, you’ll be in a better position to make a smart decision.
Saddle History
“I don’t see the saddle," Nici said. “Now what do we do?”
The earliest saddles were just blankets or animal hides thrown over the horse’s back. They evolved piece by piece from there.
Late in the Iron Age, the Moors of North Africa began adding more padding to their saddles.
Around 700 BC, the Assyrians, an ancient Middle Eastern civilization, used fringed cloths or pads attached to the horse by a girth. A girth is a piece of equipment that uses straps around the animal’s chest to hold the saddle in place. Individuals showed off their wealth by adding precious metals, carvings and other ornamentation to their saddles.
A saddle made from leather, felt, hair and gold that dates back to the 5th century BC was found in a Scythian tomb in Siberia. The Scythians were Iranian Eurasion nomads who were masters of mounted warfare. Their padded saddles had girths, and may also have had leather stirrups.
In Asia around 200 BC during the Han dynasty, saddles with a frame known as a “tree” began appearing. It was a primitive wooden frame covered in felt. The tree helped keep the rider’s weight off the horse’s back—a big improvement for both the person and the animal!
A leather strap like a stirrup was in use in India during the 2nd century BC. Nomadic tribes in China invented a more supportive stirrup. Toward the end of the 5th century AD, paired stirrups were in widespread use across China.
The Romans didn’t use saddles until toward the end of their empire. These had girths, but no stirrups. Instead, they had four horns, to help riders hold on with their thighs.
During the Middle Ages, knights needed stronger saddles because the horse had to carry more weight from armor and weapons. Saddle makers built sturdy wooden trees, which were more supportive. This frame was padded with wool or horsehair and covered in leather or textiles. These were the forerunners of modern Western saddles.
Sun Reflection
Specular reflection is the term for what happens when light reflects from a smooth surface, such as a still body of water. A mountain reflected in an alpine lake, for example, is a beautiful example of specular reflection.
That image breaks up, however, when the surface of the water is in motion. This is because the waves or ripples reflect the sun at different angles. So what you’re seeing is really many small images of the sun reflected in the retinas of your eyes. This is known as sun glitter.
Sun glitter is bright enough to damage your eyes, so don’t stare at it for too long.
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Horse Legs
Horses are very protective of their legs. They know that running is the only way to escape a predator or danger. That’s why they jump around and sometimes bolt away from handlers when they’re extremely agitated.
Chapter 5 / Fun Facts
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Grape Harvesting
The sugar content of grapes is important when they’re being harvested for juice or wine. During the day when the temperature rises, the sugar level can vary. So the best time to pick grapes is actually at night when it’s cooler and the sugar level is more constant.
The type of grape determines how long it’s left to ripen on the vine. White grapes intended to deliver a crisp, slightly tart taste are picked first. Red grapes are picked later. And grapes for sweet dessert wines are the last to be picked. That’s because the longer the grape ripens on the vine, the more sugar it produces.
Machiavelli
Niccolo Machiavelli was an Italian philosopher who wrote about a scheming approach to power in his book, The Prince. The book, written in 1513, essentially proposed that the “end justifies the means”—a fancy way of saying that it doesn’t matter how you achieve your goals, only that you achieve them.
Machiavelli’s point was that sometimes bad actions can accomplish good goals. But more often, people interpret it to mean that anything goes in pursuit of an objective.
To this day, the philosopher’s name is linked with anyone who has a reputation for ruthlessness, deception or cruelty in pursuit of a goal. Thus, Carlton could be called “Machiavellian” in that he will stop at nothing to regain the crown of Pahdu.
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​Fermentation
Fermentation in winemaking is what turns simple grape juice into an alcoholic beverage. When the juice sits for several days or weeks, the yeast begins to interact with the sugars, creating ethanol (yes, the same stuff as in gasoline) and giving off carbon dioxide.
Early winemakers thought this process looked like the juice was boiling. Thus, it was called fermentation from the Latin word “fervere” which means to boil.
Note: There’s more to winemaking than waiting for juice to turn alcoholic, so don’t think you can just leave your pitcher of homemade grape juice in the back of the fridge and have it turn to wine.
Fight or Flight
Elliot froze, unsure of whether to retreat or meet his captors head-on.
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Extreme stress or fear causes several physical reactions. These developed long ago to help humans deal with life-threatening situations. Called the “fight or flight” response, these bodily changes allowed early humans to make quick decisions. It also prepared them to attack or flee a predator or other dangerous condition.
While we no longer have to worry about running from a wooly mammoth stampede, our bodies are still hard-wired to react the same way as early humans. When you feel threatened, adrenaline and other stress hormones kick in. Your heartbeat and breathing increase. Your pupils dilate. And awareness of your surroundings intensifies. Blood moves away from your digestive track and into the muscles. This provides extra energy for running or fighting.
Chapter 6 / Fun Facts
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Tea
Tea has been around for nearly 5,000 years. Legend has it that a Chinese emperor was sitting under the shade of a tree when some leaves fell into his pot of boiling water. Being the curious sort, he tasted the brew and discovered tea. It’s now the second-most popular beverage in the world, after water.
Black, oolong, green, yellow and white tea all come from the same plant—the camellia sinensis, also called the common tea plant—that is native to China and India. (It’s now grown over much of the world.) The difference in the types of tea comes from the drying process and treatment of the leaves, not the plants themselves.
Flavored teas simply add other plants to an actual tea. For example, Earl Grey, one of the most popular varieties, infuses black tea with bergamot (a citrus fruit from Asia). Herbal teas aren’t technically tea at all, but rather a drink made from the flowers, leaves, seeds or roots of various plants.
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a condition where a person’s temperature drops so low that their body cannot function normally.
In the early stages, blood vessels in the outer extremities constrict or close off. When that happens, the nose, hands, feet, and ears become numb. As hypothermia progresses, the blood vessels narrow even more in an attempt to keep vital organs warm. Muscles stop working properly at this point. If warming does not happen soon, the victim falls into a stupor and their major organs fail.
Exposure to freezing air temperatures without adequate clothing or falling into cold water can bring about hypothermia. Victims can die in a little as 15 minutes.
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Xenophobia
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Xenophobia— pronounced zee'-no-fo-bia—is an extreme hatred or fear of strangers or foreigners, or of anything foreign. It comes from the Greek words “xenos” meaning stranger or foreigner and “phobos” meaning fear.
Personally, I enjoy meeting people from other countries and cultures. They usually have something interesting to teach me.
Decision Making
Not every decision you’ll have to make in your life is as dramatic and upsetting as Selma’s. But decisions are a part of everyone’s life. Some are small and not all that important, such as what to order at a restaurant. Others can have a big impact on your life.
Sometimes a decision is clear. You already have strong feelings about which option you want to choose. But other times, it’s not so obvious. You have a lot of good choices. Or sometimes they’re all bad.
Here are some tricks you can use when you’re not sure which option is best:
• Pretend you’re advising a friend. Which direction would you suggest for someone you love who’s faced with your opportunity or dilemma? Sometimes getting a little distance can be helpful.
• Create a pro and con list. Make two columns on a piece of paper. On one side, list all of the good things about the decision. On the other side, write down all of the bad things. This may help make it clear which choice is best for you.
• Flip a coin. This is a really simple method that’s surprisingly effective. If you’re happy with the way the coin lands, you’ll know that deep down, that’s the choice you want to make. If you’re unhappy with the flip result, you’ll know the other choice is really what you want.
Chapter 7 / Fun Facts
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Treading Water
Treading water is a way to keep your head above water. The idea is to keep your torso still while your arms and legs move to keep you afloat.
It’s most effective to move your arms back and forth horizontally. Moving them up and down in the water makes your body bob around. Also, it’s best if your palms face whichever way you’re pushing the water. So when you’re sweeping your arms away from your body, your palms should be facing out. When pulling your arms back in, your palms should face in.
Kicking your legs—either side to side or in circular motions—also helps keep you afloat. You’ll use the least amount of energy if you kick one leg in one direction and the other in the opposite direction. Try to time it so that when one leg is coming inward, the other is moving out. This motion will keep you from tiring so quickly.
Angle Swimming
In a swiftly moving river, swimming at a 45º angle makes it easier to get to shore. That’s because you’re not fighting as much of the current as you would trying to swim straight across to the bank. At a lesser angle you’re letting the river’s natural flow do some of the work while still positioning yourself to make it to a side bank, just farther down stream.
Whirlpools
Now she was no longer moving downstream. Nici was caught in a vicious whirlpool.
If you’ve ever watched bath water drain from the tub, you’ve witnessed a whirlpool, also called a vortex.
Naturally occurring whirlpools are formed where two opposing currents come together. That could be from strong currents trapped between rocks or two currents coming together.
The vortex that trapped Nici was caused by the flow of the stream meeting the Roon River’s current.
Ancient mariners believed that whirlpools were the home of sea monsters that swallowed any ship that sailed into it. You can see what they were thinking by watching video of the ship that was caught in a huge ocean whirlpool, known as a maelstrom, during the 2011 Japanese tsunami.
Algae
Algae, the plural of alga, refers to a family of simple organisms that have no roots. They grow in water that’s exposed to sunlight. Algae use photosynthesis to grow, just like land plants. But they are not considered plants because they don’t have roots, stems, or leaves.
Algae can range from microscopic, single-celled organisms to seaweed to kelp that’s 200 feet [61 meters] tall. There are up to 20,000 different types. Red, green and brown algae are the most common. Red algae fossils have been found in rocks that are 1.2 billion years old.
Rapids
Rapids are formed when something alters the normal flow of the river. This extra churn of the water can be caused by:
• Large boulders, a fallen tree and other obstructions
• Having to flow through a narrow passage; the river gets pushed in from the sides, so it speeds up the flow and stirs up the water
• A short drop (not high enough to create a waterfall)
• A tributary, which is a smaller stream, entering the larger river
The turbulence resulting from any of these causes mixes air with water, which is why rapids appear frothy or white.
Chapter 8 / Fun Facts
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Hogwash
The term “hogwash” was first used around the mid-15th century. Hog of course refers to a pig. Wash refers to the waste liquid and food scraps from a kitchen. The wash was often used to feed pigs. So hogwash was basically something undesirable.
Over time, the meaning of hogwash evolved to describe poorly made liquor, then poorly written manuscripts before it became a term for nonsense.
Growling Stomach
Gino’s stomach rumbled along with the wheels on the road. He hadn’t had anything to eat for almost a day and a half and very little to drink.
The noises your stomach makes just signal that your digestive system is working. Your gastrointestinal tract is basically a hollow tube. The muscles in the walls of the stomach and small intestine contract to squeeze food, gas and fluids through the tube a few inches at a time. This generates a rumbling noise.
About two hours after your stomach walls sense the absence of food, the muscle contractions start up again. Since there’s no food to muffle the sound, the rumbling seems louder than when your digestive system is working on a full stomach. This is why a growling stomach is most often associated with hunger and the absence of food.
Quill Pens
The word “pen” comes from the Latin word “penna,” which means feather. Quill pens are made from the feathers of large birds. Swan feathers were considered the best, but goose feathers were the most common. Many farmers raised geese to meet the demand for quills. Owl, hawk, eagle, turkey, duck and crow feathers were also used for quills. In fact, Abraham Lincoln preferred an eagle feather for writing.
A special knife—the penknife—was used to create the tip needed for writing. Whenever the tip wore down, the writer would use the penknife to create a new tip. They would do this over and over until the quill was too short to write comfortably—just like sharpening a pencil.
It’s uncertain when feathers were first introduced, but a quill was used to write parts of the Dead Sea scrolls that date back to the 2nd century BC. By the 7th century AD, quills were becoming more popular than reed pens that were too stiff and wore out quickly. Feather pens flourished in the 15th century when writing started spreading throughout the western world.
These writing instruments remained popular until the 1850s when steel-nibbed pens replaced quills. However, they can still be found in the U.S. Supreme Court every day it is in session. Quill pens are placed on all the counsel tables. Lawyers who argue cases before the justices get to keep the pens as mementos.
Beer
Beer has been around since early humans switched from being hunter/gatherers to farmers. Here are some fun facts about beer that you may not know:
• Archaeological findings show that Chinese villagers brewed beer-type beverages about 9,000 years ago. It was used for funerals, worshipping ancestors and other rituals.
• Ancient pottery provides chemical proof that the Sumarians—who lived in what is now southern Iraq—enjoyed the beverage 6,000 years ago.
• There is an ancient Egyptian hieroglyph for brewer.
• Early beer drinkers used a straw to avoid the fermented grain at the bottom.
• Medieval workers were sometimes paid in beer.
• When Middle Age monks fasted, they were allowed to drink beer because it wasn’t a solid. Some records show they were allotted 10 pints [5 liters] per day. That’s a lot of beer on an empty stomach.
• Commercial breweries began to replace home-brewed beer brewed in the Middle Ages. Beck’s Brewery began in 1553 and is still in business today.
Chapter 9 / Fun Facts
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Parachutes
Nici’s hair bonnet slows her down by creating drag or resistance. This is the principle behind the parachute, which is simply a device to slow the motion of an object through the air.
An Italian manuscript from 1470 shows the earliest-known parachute design. This may have served as inspiration for Leonardo da Vinci’s better-known canopy—which modern-day skydivers have recreated and proved actually works. In 1617, Fausto Veranzio created a design of his own and used it to successfully jump off a tower in Venice.
The modern parachute was invented in the 18th century in France. This is probably why the word has a French origin. It comes from the ancient Greek word “para” meaning against and the French word “chute” meaning fall.
Waterfall Pools
Before she had time to spy a suitable place to land, Nici found herself enveloped in a cloud of mist.
High waterfalls erode the rock beneath them, creating a plunge pool or waterfall lake. As boulders and rocks are swept over the edge, they get swirled around in the water. Over time, they gouge a giant hole that fills with water.
Plunge pools can be so deep that they continue to exist even after the river is diverted or stops flowing.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy refers to an object’s ability to rise or float in a liquid. Submerged objects can rise back to the top thanks to what’s known as buoyant force.
Here’s how it works: The pressure put on an object increases the deeper down it goes in the fluid. Think about a swimming pool, for example. The bottom of the pool in the deep end has more water above pressing down on it than the shallow end. So the pressure is greater.
Because of this fact, the pressure on the top of an object underwater will always be weaker than the pressure on the bottom of the object, which is deeper in the fluid.
This principle never changes. What does change is the weight of the object. Its mass is what determines if it sinks or floats.
If the object’s weight is greater than the buoyant force, it will sink. If it’s lighter than the force, the object will rise to the surface and float. And if the object’s weight and buoyant force are equal, the object will remain suspended in the liquid.
Wind Chill
Wind chill is what we call the cooling effect caused by the combination of wind and temperature. The colder the temperature, the more strongly you feel the wind chill.
That’s because wind chill is based on how quickly exposed skin loses heat. When there’s no wind, air acts as blanket around your skin and gets warmed by your body heat. When the wind picks up, it blows away this warm air. So your body has to work harder to generate more heat or it starts to cool down.
If the temperature is cold to begin with, your body is already working overtime to keep you warm. A steady wind makes it much harder to do that job, which is why the temperature feels colder than it actually is.
Chapter 10 / Fun Facts
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Syntax
“You no know?” Gino repeated his wife’s mixed-up syntax.
Syntax refers to how words are arranged in a sentence. This pattern, also called sentence structure, helps people more easily understand what the speaker or writer is trying to say.
The various parts of speech—nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.—that are used in one language may be used differently or not at all in other languages. Because of this, sentence structure can vary from language to language. It’s not surprising then that non-native speakers sometimes have trouble getting the syntax right in their adopted tongue.
Gestures
Gestures are a form of intentional non-verbal communication versus body language that is often unintentional. They can be used in place of verbal communication, or together with words (such as pointing while saying “go that way”).
People in every culture use gestures to communicate with each other. Some movements are universal—such as shaking the head side to side to mean “no.” Other gestures may have one meaning in one culture and quite a different intent in another part of the world. For example, the thumbs up sign that signals approval in many countries is considered a rude gesture in Latin America, the Middle East and many other parts of the world.
When visiting a foreign country, it’s smart to study their customs so you don’t embarrass yourself with a gesture that could be misinterpreted.
Squinting
The combination of direct and reflected light on water is much greater than on land. That’s why we often narrow our eyelids when we’re around bodies of water.
By squinting, you can reduce the amount of light that enters your eyes, and thus reduce the glare. However, this can cause tired eyes and headaches over a long period of time. Luckily we have a solution that Gino does not—sunglasses.
Echoes
An echo happens when a sound wave bounces off something solid and returns to the listener’s ear a short time later. The wave can rebound off multiple surfaces, as long as it eventually gets directed back to the listener. The greater the distance the sound wave travels, the longer the time between making the sound and receiving its echo. Caves and canyons are great places to hear echoes because the wave bounces off several hard surfaces, which amplifies the sound.
Soft surfaces absorb sound waves instead of reflecting them. This is why a large room with high ceilings will produce echoes when it’s empty, but not once the furniture, carpet and curtains are in place.
In Greek mythology, Echo was a nymph. One story says that she was punished for tricking the goddess Hera and thereafter could only echo the words of others. In another story, Echo fell in love with Narcissus. When he didn’t return her affection, she wasted away until nothing was left but her voice.
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Fire
“Do you smell that?” Gino inquired.
“Is being the smell like burning,” Selma remarked.
Their house was now nothing but smoldering ruins.
Fire requires three things—fuel, heat and oxygen. When the fuel heats up to a point known as the ignition temperature, it reacts with oxygen in the air. This creates a flame. The flame causes more heat, which burns the fuel faster.
If you take away one of the elements, the fire goes out. Firefighters use a special type of foam to smother flames, which removes the oxygen. They also use water to cool the fuel below its ignition point.
Sometimes there’s no way to remove the oxygen or lower the temperature. The only way to extinguish the flames in these cases is to wait until all of the fuel is consumed. While this is happening, a fire can smolder for days or weeks. Smoldering is simply a type of combustion (burning) with no flame and little smoke.
Chapter 11 / Fun Facts
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Swords
The hilt is the handle of a sword. It contains a pommel, grip and guard.
The pommel (Latin for “little apple”) is a weight at the top of the handle. It helps balance the load of the sword so that it’s easier to use. The grip is the actual part of the hilt that a person holds. The guard is a piece that goes across the hilt and separates the handle from the blade. It helps protect the users’ hand from someone else’s sword and from sliding down to the blade.
The scabbard is the cover the sword blade rests in when not in use.
Flint and Steel
People have always needed a portable way to start a fire, but matches didn’t come into use until the 1800s. Prior to that, a combination of a flint, steel and some tinder proved to be a very efficient fire-starting method.
The flint or flintstone is a type of quartz (not a cartoon character). It’s been used since the Stone Ages for tools such as axes and spears. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. A fire-starting steel was usually shaped in a loop to make it easier to hold. The tinder used in the Middle Ages was often charcloth. This referred to scrap pieces of material such as linen that was partially burned to help them catch on fire faster.
Striking the flint against the steel created sparks that set fire to the tinder. The burning tinder could then be used to light a larger fire, much like we use matches.
Medieval travelers often carried a tinderbox with them, which was a small container for their flint, steel and tinder. Today when we refer to a tinderbox, we mean something that can quickly erupt into flames.
Stalactites and Stalagmites
Stalactites and stalagmites are rock formations found in caves. Stalactites hang from the ceiling, like icicles. Stalagmites grow from the floor like spikes. To remember which is which, think T for top and G for ground.
Both formations are created by water dripping or flowing from fractures in the cave’s ceiling. The water contains calcite, a mineral that forms these natural sculptures. Impurities in the dripping water create the various colors.
Water dripping from the ceiling leaves traces of calcite on the top of the cave. Over time, these tiny amounts of the mineral begin to build on each other to create stalactites that grow down from the top.
Water that drips to floor of the cave also leaves behind traces of calcite. These traces build up drip by drip to create the upward-growing sculptures known as stalagmites. Depending on how the water falls, the formations can be flat, conical, mushroom-shaped or look like a pile of plates.
Stalactites can meet up with stalagmites to form a column. When this happens along a wide stretch, it’s called a curtain.
Chapter 12 / Fun Facts
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Upside Down
Blood rushed to her head. Her right leg felt like it was being pulled from its socket.
Hanging upside down for a long time can be hazardous to your health. That’s because our bodies are built so that gravity helps to pump blood all the way through our systems. We also have muscles in our legs that help push the blood back up to the heart.
But no such muscles exist in the brain. So when the brain is below the heart for too long, blood pools in the head because it has a hard time returning to the rest of the body. This can increase blood pressure and lead to a stroke.
Of course being upside down for a short period of time is fun (if you’re not hanging by your ankle like Nici). It can even have some health benefits as more blood—and therefore more oxygen—reaches your brain.
Birthmarks
Nici noticed a red mark on the woman’s extended hand. It was shaped like an hourglass.
Parmalee saw her staring at it. “Birthmark, I guess,” she explained.
Birthmarks are colored marks on or under a person’s skin. They are most often obvious at birth or show up shortly thereafter. Some marks fade as the child gets older, while others stay the same or get bigger or darker. They can appear anywhere on the body.
Birthmarks can be caused by extra pigment (color) in the skin or when blood vessels are bunched together or don’t grow normally.
Starvation
Parmalee nodded. “Probably best not to eat too much right away. Too much of a shock to your stomach.”
When a person hasn’t eaten for a long period of time, the body undergoes a number of changes. The energy humans usually get from eating carbohydrates is not available. So the body begins to consume its fat and protein stores, including muscle. The digestive organs begin to atrophy (wither away) and they produce less of the enzymes needed to process food.
When food is re-introduced, the stomach needs time to adapt. Therefore, it’s best to eat small portions until the digestive system returns to normal.
Gourds
Gourds are actually fruits, not vegetables. They belong to the plant family called Cucurbitaceae. They can range from the colorful assortment you see in grocery stores around Halloween to pumpkins, cucumbers, squash and melons.
Archeologists have found evidence of gourds in Peru dating back to 13,000 to 11,000 BC and at sites in Thailand that date back to 11,000 to 6,000 BC. Besides being cultivated for food, gourds have been used as musical instruments, kitchen tools, toys, bird houses, decorations and more.
Sponge gourds—Luffa aegyptiaca and Luffa acutangula—actually exist. In fact, you can buy seeds for this type of gourd and grow your own sponges.
Chapter 13 / Fun Facts
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Beer Steins
Renetta pushed down on the lid of Tem’s beer stein to keep him from drinking more.
If it wasn’t for the bubonic plague, beer steins might never have been invented. In the early 1500s, people still had no idea what caused the “Black Death.” Fearing that the hoards of flies in their midst might cause another outbreak of the deadly plague, the government of what is now Germany passed a covered-container law.
To comply with this law, common beer mugs had to have a lid. Someone cleverly made the lid hinged with a thumb piece so people could drink their beer with one hand. And thus, the beer stein was born.
Around this same time, new techniques for firing earthenware were developed. Higher temperatures turned clay into a more solid, stone-like material. Beer steins were made of this new stoneware. The word “stein” is short for “Steinkrug”, which means “stone jug” in German.
Trumpets
When the morning trumpet sounded, Renetta was already awake and dressed.
The trumpet has been used as a signaling device for thousands of years. Early versions were made of materials found in nature, such as an animal horn or shell. Metal trumpets go as far back as the ancient Egyptians. Two horns—one silver, one bronze—were found in King Tut’s tomb.
At first, these instruments were used primarily for military purposes. Different sounds told soldiers to charge, retreat, break camp and so on. In the Middle Ages, trumpets began to be used for pageants and ceremonial occasions as well.
Early versions were straight tubes with a mouthpiece at one end and a flared bell-shape at the other. Around 1400, the tube was bent into curves more like today’s trumpets. It wasn’t until the 1800s that valves and slides were added to make it easier to consistently produce notes.
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Barrels
Wooden barrels are made by coopers. They use heat and humidity to shape pieces of wood— called staves—with an outward arch. Iron hoops hold these curved pieces in place.
The odd shape of a barrel is actually a clever bit of engineering. The bulge at the middle means the barrel only meets the floor at one point. So it requires very little effort for the handler to steer the vessel and change directions.
Barrels were the preferred containers for storing and transporting goods from the Iron Age until the early 20th century. They could hold more and protected their contents better than crates or bags. And they were particularly good for transporting liquids, such as oil and wine.
Blinking
Blinking moistens the eyes to keep them from drying out. It also helps protect from dust and dirt. Infants blink only about once a minute, while older people blink about 12 times a minute.
Research shows that when we’re interested in the information we’re taking in, we blink less. When we’re disinterested or tired, we blink more frequently.
Chapter 14 / Fun Facts
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Smoke
The smoke produced by a fire is a mixture of gases, water vapor and extremely tiny particles. These particles are about 40 times smaller than the width of a human hair.
The actual makeup of the particles and gases depends on what is burning. This is why smoke can have different smells and be black or white.
As the fire is being extinguished, the particles in the smoke cool and stick to everything they touch. This is why the smell of smoke lingers long after the fire is out.
Ashes
Gino toed through some of the ashes.
The fine ashes that are left after a fire are from the minerals in the fire’s fuel. The bigger pieces of ash are usually from flammable material that hasn’t burned completely.
Wood ash has some interesting uses, including:
• When soap isn’t available, try ashes. That’s what the very first soaps were made of. Around 2800 BC, the Babylonians created soap out of a mixture of wood ash and animal fats.
• You can get rid of oil stains in your garage or driveway by sprinkling some ashes over the area. Let it sit for about 10 minutes and then sweep it up with a broom.
• Add just enough water to ashes to make a thick paste, then spread it over tarnished silver. After it sits for a few minutes, wipe off the paste and use a clean cloth to buff the silver to a shine.
• When sprinkled around individual plants or an entire plot, ash keeps away destructive slugs and snails.
• Placing a small bowl of ash in a stinky room can help get rid of the bad smells.
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Food Preservation
Before there were refrigerators to keep food from spoiling, people used various methods
of preservation. Drying or dehydration was one of the first and most widely used methods. Removing water from food keeps it from molding, so it can last longer.
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Dried Fruits
For thousands of years, dried fruits have been a staple of people’s diets. It’s likely that ancient hunter/gatherers saw the grapes, dates and other fruits that dropped from vines or trees and dried in the sun. When they realized these were edible, they began including the more stable forms of the fruit in their diets.
Some of the oldest written recipes to include dried fruit are found on clay tablets from Mesopotamia dating back to 1700 BC.
Dried Meats
The ancient Egyptians hung meat in the sun to dry. The Phoenicians air-dried fish. Other civilizations dried their meat over a fire.
The long-lasting, nutritious dried meat we now call jerky was a staple of native North and South American people. In fact, the word jerky is derived from the Incan word “ch’arki,” which means dried meat in their Quechuan language.
North American tribes also enjoyed a high-energy food called pemmican. This consisted of dried meat pounded into a powder and stirred into melted animal fat. The mixture could also include dried berries that were pounded into a powder. Pemmican could be eaten as is, boiled in a stew or fried.
Crackling Fire
Small pockets of water and sap are present in wood, especially when it’s just been cut. When placed on a fire, the fluids heat up and begin to steam. The trapped steam builds up until it eventually causes the wood to split. The pop and crackle is the sound of the crevice opening and the steam hitting the fire.
Chapter 15 / Fun Facts
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Fainting
Fainting happens when the heart doesn’t pump efficiently enough to get adequate blood to the brain. One reason people pass out from pain or extreme shock is that they hold their breath and tense up. This decreases the heart rate and therefore the flow of blood. Once a person has passed out, their breathing and heart rate return to normal and they wake up.
Romani
“Romanis!” Nici remarked. “My mother was saved by some Romani when she was starving.”
For years, the Romani or Roma people were called by the derogatory term Gypsy. This likely came from the mistaken belief that they were from Egypt and hence “Gyptians.”
Traditional occupations included craftsmen, tinkerers, musicians and fortune tellers. There were also con artists among the Roma, though that part of their history is probably greatly exaggerated. But the term “gypped”—which means to be swindled or cheated—came from a stereotype of Gypsies being less than honest. Gypped, like Gypsy, is now regarded as an offensive term.
Much of Romani history and culture are shrouded in mystery. But their language and genetic makeup suggest that they originally came from areas around Northern India and Pakistan. The Roma first reached Europe around a thousand years ago. At first, they were viewed with curiosity. But they began to be viewed with contempt because of their nomadic lifestyle, which was so different from that of settled citizens. The Roma were enslaved, expelled or publicly humiliated by various countries. The worst example of this xenophobia was during World War II when the Nazis exterminated an estimated 250,000 to 1,500,000 Roma.
Today, people with Roma bloodlines can be found throughout Europe, Asia, North America and Australia.
Herbal Medicine
Since prehistoric times, people on all continents have used plant-based or herbal medicines. In fact, medicinal herbs were found on the “ice man,” the incredibly preserved 5,300-year-old mummy discovered in the Alps.
The written record shows herbs being used as medicine by the Sumerians over 5,000 years ago. A Chinese herbal book that lists 365 medicinal plants and their uses dates back to 2700 BC.
In the Middle Ages, folk medicine was practiced most often by women. As the Catholic church’s influence became greater, these “wise-women” were feared to be witches.
Today, you can find whole books and medicine shops devoted to herbal remedies. Some examples of how modern people take advantage of this ancient knowledge include using the leaves of the aloe vera plant to soothe burns, and eating ginger to combat nausea or garlic to lower cholesterol.